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In salt reduction, does replacing part of the table salt (NaCl) with potassium chloride (KCl) make food taste more bitter?

To be clear from the start, this page is about studies that, for the same food, compared a condition with part or all of the table salt (NaCl) replaced by potassium chloride (KCl) against a salt-only condition, with the other ingredients at the same amounts, and looked at how bitter people found the result. It is not advice on how to reduce salt or on health. Salt substitutes are sometimes said to taste bitter, and adding potassium chloride is sometimes said to make food bitter. So what do studies say that changed only the proportion replaced in the same food and had people rate bitterness? This page lines up the included studies, by study and by formulation, together with their conditions: the food, the proportion replaced and its basis (molar or by weight), and who rated it on what scale. To be honest at the outset, within what could be obtained, six studies were checked in full text for values or tests and tabulated, all of them processed foods. The number of pairs compared is a number of table rows, not of studies. Separately, one cheese study compared the bitter-taste item with a quality score (a scale on which higher means better quality), and it is kept apart from bitterness intensity. Three studies were read in the abstract only; they are marked "abstract only" and counted separately from the full-text rows. Among the included studies, within the same study there are points where a higher proportion replaced was separated by a test as more bitter and points where it was not. In one food, replacing half by weight showed no significant difference, and some pairs have no reported test result. For this reason no summary such as up to what proportion food does not become bitter is given; the published values and tests are shown by study and by formulation. Some studies show values only in figures or give no test result for the individual bitterness pairs, so please check the test in each row. The basis of the proportion, the food, the scale and the raters differ by study, so values and stated proportions are not compared across studies or turned into ratios. This page then separates what was established within one experiment, what differences between studies might explain, and what this comparison alone cannot separate.

On this page (9 sections)

What this page establishes
What the included studies allow us to say
Bitterness ratings at a glance
Conditions and results, study by study
What was established within an experiment
Candidate explanations for the differences
What is not known — what this comparison alone cannot separate
How studies and rows were counted
What we looked at

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What this page establishes

This page lines up, by study and by formulation, studies in which people rated bitterness intensity and compared a condition with part of the salt replaced by potassium chloride against a salt-only condition in the same food. The six studies checked in full text are all processed foods, and studies of solutions alone are not rows.
Within the same study, there are points where a higher proportion replaced was separated by a test as more bitter and points where it was not. In other foods, some pairs showed no significant difference and others have no reported test result. No summary statement is made.
Some studies calculated the proportion from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis) and others set it by weight, so the same stated proportion means a different amount of potassium chloride.
The cheese quality score for the bitter-taste item is a scale on which higher means better quality and is not converted into bitterness intensity. Abstract-only rows are counted separately from full-text rows.
Rows from the same study are not independent, and scales differ by study, so values are not compared between studies. Not showing a significant difference does not mean there is no difference.

What the included studies allow us to say

Among studies in which people rated bitterness intensity and, for the same food, compared a condition with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl against an NaCl-only condition with the other ingredients at the same amounts, six were checked in full text and tabulated, with sixteen pairs compared (hot-smoked mackerel, bacon, two dry sausages, beef patty and wheat bread). All are processed foods; studies of solutions alone are not rows, because another ingredient is added to one side only or the values are unconfirmed. Separately, one study compared Feta with all of the brine salt replaced by KCl using a quality score for the bitter-taste item (a scale on which higher means better quality), and it is kept apart from the bitterness intensity rows. Of studies read in the abstract only, three are listed as "abstract only", only where the abstract states a direction or a test for bitterness (dry-cured bacon, sushi and mozzarella; mozzarella is a reference with only a statement about a test across all groups). The values and test statements in the abstracts were checked; the methods, formulations and individual results in the full texts were not. Full-text rows and abstract-only rows are counted separately. [rows: Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 10% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Park 2026 Beef patty: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Wang 2024 Dry sausage (the two controls of a lactic acid bacteria study): 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Zonoubi and Goli 2021 Quality score (bitter-taste item; not an intensity rating): UF Feta, brine fully replaced with KCl vs NaCl; Wu 2014 Dry-cured bacon: 70% KCl substitution vs NaCl only [abstract only]; Đorđević 2018 Sushi (shrimp maki): KCl salt vs 2% NaCl [abstract only; no test result in the abstract]; Ayyash 2013 Reference (abstract's statement across all groups: not significant; individual pairs unconfirmed): low-moisture mozzarella, NaCl:KCl = 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 vs NaCl only [abstract only]]
Within the same study, there are points where a higher proportion replaced was separated by a test as more bitter and points where it was not. In hot-smoked mackerel (substitution readable as molar), in both the 5% and the 10% brine, 25% KCl shared a letter with NaCl only and no significant difference was shown, while 50% and 75% had a different letter and were significantly higher (approximately from the figure, in the 5% brine NaCl only was about 0 against about 0.3 for 25%, about 1.8 for 50% and about 2.6 for 75%). In bacon (substitution readable as by weight), 10% (2.04 against 2.15) and 20% (2.15 against 2.15) showed no significant difference, and 30% was significantly higher at 3.31 against 2.15. In dry sausage (by weight), 20% showed no significant difference, 40% was significantly higher (approximately from the figure, about 3.4 against about 2.2), and for 30% the text and the figure letters disagree. [rows: Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 75% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 75% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 10% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only [text and figure letters disagree]; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
In other foods, some pairs showed no significant difference and others have no reported test result. In beef patty with 50% replaced by weight (0.5% NaCl + 0.5% KCl against 1.0% NaCl), the mean in the figure is slightly higher on the KCl side (about 3.3 against about 3.2), but no significant difference was shown. Not showing a significant difference does not mean there is no difference. In wheat bread, 20% substitution was higher at 22 against 17 and 30% substitution was lower at 14 against 17, but no individual test result for the bitterness pairs is given. For 40% substitution in dry sausage without lactic acid bacteria (the two controls of a lactic acid bacteria study), the value is higher, approximately from the figure about 3.4–3.5 against about 2.2, but no test result for bitterness in this pair is given. [rows: Park 2026 Beef patty: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Wang 2024 Dry sausage (the two controls of a lactic acid bacteria study): 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
In Feta, the quality score for the bitter-taste item with all of the brine replaced by KCl was lower on the KCl side, 6.12 against 6.45, but no significant difference was shown. The source does not say whether a higher score means less bitter, so it is not converted into bitterness intensity. Among abstract-only studies, the abstract on dry-cured bacon says bitterness was higher with 70% substitution (p<0.05), and in sushi (shrimp maki) the KCl salt had a higher value, 21.48 against 7.91 (no test result in the abstract). For mozzarella, the abstract says bitterness did not differ significantly across the four groups including NaCl only, and gives no order of values for each mixture and no test result for individual pairs. [rows: Zonoubi and Goli 2021 Quality score (bitter-taste item; not an intensity rating): UF Feta, brine fully replaced with KCl vs NaCl; Wu 2014 Dry-cured bacon: 70% KCl substitution vs NaCl only [abstract only]; Đorđević 2018 Sushi (shrimp maki): KCl salt vs 2% NaCl [abstract only; no test result in the abstract]; Ayyash 2013 Reference (abstract's statement across all groups: not significant; individual pairs unconfirmed): low-moisture mozzarella, NaCl:KCl = 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 vs NaCl only [abstract only]]
The basis of the proportion (molar or by weight), the food, the heating and serving, the scale and the raters differ by study, and even at the same stated proportion the results differ by study. For this reason no summary such as up to what proportion food does not become bitter is given; the published values and tests are listed by study and by formulation. This page deals only with bitterness ratings and is not advice on salt reduction, on using potassium chloride, or on health.
Some sources were put on hold. The burger with carrot pulp has formulation pairs within scope, but its methods describe a scale from dislike very much to like very much, while the authors read it as bitterness intensity, so it is not an intensity row. The grass carp fish mince gel has a formulation pair within scope, but whether its bitterness score is intensity or acceptability cannot be confirmed. The mayonnaise-type spreads also vary in oil concentration, and a pair with the same formulation cannot be identified from the abstract. The solutions in the soup paper include an NaCl-only solution and solutions with part replaced by KCl, but the bitterness values are in a supplementary figure, which was not obtained, so values are unconfirmed.

Bitterness ratings at a glance

Only the results of people's bitterness ratings are pulled out here. Food, scale and aggregation differ by study, so values are not compared across studies. In each label, the condition with potassium chloride comes before "vs" and the salt-only condition after it, and the value columns follow the same order. The proportion replaced and its basis (molar or by weight) are in each row's condition. The "direction" column shows which was more bitter as "… more bitter". The direction shows only which published value is larger. Rows without values get no direction label (shown as "direction not given"), and directions stated in an abstract are in the note under the row in the detailed table for each study. Whether a difference is significant is in the test line of the "direction / test" column. Even in rows with no significant difference, the direction column shows which value is larger. Rows where a test method is described but no result for the two conditions shown is given are marked "result for this comparison not reported", and are not called not significant. Rows whose values exist only in a figure say in the value column that they are approximate readings from the figure. The bracket at the end of a label gives the main caveat for reading that row. "Reference (abstract's statement across all groups: …):" marks a row with no values or order and only a statement about a test across the groups, not a result for individual pairs. The cheese quality score row is not bitterness intensity, so it is left out of this overview and appears only in the detailed table for each study below. Clicking a study name jumps to its detailed table under "Conditions and results, study by study". Test conditions, significance levels and disagreements between text and figures are given under each row there.

Results in which people rated bitterness only. Where each value comes from (a table or a reading from a figure) is shown in its row; scales and methods differ between studies, so compare within a row, not across rows.

Study	Comparison and condition	Measured as	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Direction / test
Rybicka 2022	Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 5% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 75% NaCl + 25% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	about 0.3 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0 (approximate, from the figure; no visible bar)	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, not significant
Rybicka 2022	Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 5% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 50% NaCl + 50% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	about 1.8 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0 (approximate, from the figure; no visible bar)	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Rybicka 2022	Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 75% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 5% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 25% NaCl + 75% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	about 2.6 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0 (approximate, from the figure; no visible bar)	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Rybicka 2022	Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 10% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 75% NaCl + 25% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	about 0.3 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0.1–0.2 (approximate, from the figure)	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, not significant
Rybicka 2022	Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 10% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 50% NaCl + 50% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	about 2.1 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0.1–0.2 (approximate, from the figure)	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Rybicka 2022	Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 75% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 10% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 25% NaCl + 75% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	about 2.0 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0.1–0.2 (approximate, from the figure)	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Du 2022	Bacon: 10% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Pork belly injected with brine (total salts 90 g/L, sodium nitrite 500 mg/L), held at 4 °C for 20 hours and smoked; for the sensory test it was pan-fried for about 2 minutes and kept at 45 °C. A is 90% NaCl + 10% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The proportion is of the total salt (readable as by weight; not stated explicitly in the source)	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = none, 4 = average intensity, 7 = extremely intense); mean ± standard error, 12 panellists over 3 sessions	2.04 ± 0.39	2.15 ± 0.35	NaCl-only condition more bitter Tested, not significant
Du 2022	Bacon: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Pork belly injected with brine (total salts 90 g/L, sodium nitrite 500 mg/L), held at 4 °C for 20 hours and smoked; for the sensory test it was pan-fried for about 2 minutes and kept at 45 °C. A is 80% NaCl + 20% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The proportion is of the total salt (readable as by weight; not stated explicitly in the source)	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = none, 4 = average intensity, 7 = extremely intense); mean ± standard error, 12 panellists over 3 sessions	2.15 ± 0.30	2.15 ± 0.35	Same published value (not a test of equivalence) Tested, not significant
Du 2022	Bacon: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Pork belly injected with brine (total salts 90 g/L, sodium nitrite 500 mg/L), held at 4 °C for 20 hours and smoked; for the sensory test it was pan-fried for about 2 minutes and kept at 45 °C. A is 70% NaCl + 30% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The proportion is of the total salt (readable as by weight; not stated explicitly in the source)	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = none, 4 = average intensity, 7 = extremely intense); mean ± standard error, 12 panellists over 3 sessions	3.31 ± 0.41	2.15 ± 0.35	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Qin 2023	Dry sausage: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Lean pork 2700 g and back fat 300 g with 75.0 g of salt (2.5% of the meat). A is 2.00% NaCl + 0.50% KCl (20% substitution by weight), B is 2.50% NaCl. MSG 9.0 g and glucose, wine, ginger, spices and sodium nitrite are the same in all treatments. Rated on day 12 of fermentation after heating at 100 °C for 20 minutes and slicing	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = low, 7 = high); mean of 20 food professionals	about 2.5 (approximate, from the figure)	about 2.2 (approximate, from the figure)	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, not significant
Qin 2023	Dry sausage: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only [text and figure letters disagree] Lean pork 2700 g and back fat 300 g with 75.0 g of salt (2.5% of the meat). A is 1.75% NaCl + 0.75% KCl (30% substitution by weight), B is 2.50% NaCl. MSG 9.0 g and glucose, wine, ginger, spices and sodium nitrite are the same in all treatments. Rated on day 12 of fermentation after heating at 100 °C for 20 minutes and slicing	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = low, 7 = high); mean of 20 food professionals	about 2.8 (approximate, from the figure)	about 2.2 (approximate, from the figure)	Condition with KCl more bitter Test results conflict between text and figure
Qin 2023	Dry sausage: 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Lean pork 2700 g and back fat 300 g with 75.0 g of salt (2.5% of the meat). A is 1.50% NaCl + 1.00% KCl (40% substitution by weight), B is 2.50% NaCl. MSG 9.0 g and glucose, wine, ginger, spices and sodium nitrite are the same in all treatments. Rated on day 12 of fermentation after heating at 100 °C for 20 minutes and slicing	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = low, 7 = high); mean of 20 food professionals	about 3.4 (approximate, from the figure)	about 2.2 (approximate, from the figure)	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Park 2026	Beef patty: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Patties of lean beef and pork back fat (lean:fat:water:garlic powder:onion powder:black pepper = 70:20:7.2:0.5:2.0:0.3, seasonings the same in all treatments). A is 0.5% NaCl + 0.5% KCl (50% substitution by weight), B is 1.0% NaCl. Neither has banana peel extract. Grilled at 180 °C for 10 minutes to a core temperature of 72 °C	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = weak, 7 = strong; caffeine 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04% as references for 1, 4 and 7); mean of 13 trained panellists	about 3.3 (approximate, from the figure)	about 3.2 (approximate, from the figure)	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, not significant
Musiienko 2025	Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Per 1000 g of flour, A is 14.4 g NaCl + 3.6 g KCl (20% substitution by weight), B is 18.0 g NaCl (the same total salt). Water 550 g, yeast 40 g, rapeseed oil 40 g and baking improver 10 g are the same. Crust and crumb of rolls and buns baked at 220 °C for 12 minutes were rated	bitterness intensity (100 mm line scale, 0% = not perceived to 100% = very strong); mean ± standard deviation of 43 semi-trained assessors	22 ± 22	17 ± 18	Condition with KCl more bitter Test method described; result for this comparison not reported
Musiienko 2025	Wheat bread: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Per 1000 g of flour, A is 12.6 g NaCl + 5.4 g KCl (30% substitution by weight), B is 18.0 g NaCl (the same total salt). Water 550 g, yeast 40 g, rapeseed oil 40 g and baking improver 10 g are the same. Crust and crumb of rolls and buns baked at 220 °C for 12 minutes were rated	bitterness intensity (100 mm line scale, 0% = not perceived to 100% = very strong); mean ± standard deviation of 43 semi-trained assessors	14 ± 17	17 ± 18	NaCl-only condition more bitter Test method described; result for this comparison not reported
Wang 2024	Dry sausage (the two controls of a lactic acid bacteria study): 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Lean pork 3600 g and back fat 400 g. A is 1.50% NaCl + 1.00% KCl (40% substitution by weight), B is 2.50% NaCl. Glucose, liquor, flavour enhancer, spices, sodium nitrite and so on are the same, and neither was inoculated with lactic acid bacteria. Rated on day 9 of fermentation after cooking	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = not perceived, 7 = maximum); mean of 20 panellists experienced in rating dry sausage	about 3.4–3.5 (approximate, from the figure)	about 2.2 (approximate, from the figure)	Condition with KCl more bitter Test method described; result for this comparison not reported
Wu 2014	Dry-cured bacon: 70% KCl substitution vs NaCl only [abstract only] Dry-cured bacon from pig quadriceps femoris (48 samples from 24 pigs). A is 30% NaCl + 70% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. Whether by weight or molar, and the amounts of other ingredients, are not given in the abstract	bitterness (scale and number of panellists not given in the abstract)	No value in the abstract	No value in the abstract	Direction not given Tested, significant
Đorđević 2018	Sushi (shrimp maki): KCl salt vs 2% NaCl [abstract only; no test result in the abstract] Shrimp maki. A uses a KCl salt (sample name Mary in the paper), B uses 2% NaCl. The KCl concentration, the proportion replaced and whether other ingredients were the same are not given in the abstract	bitterness (the scale and the meaning of ± are not given in the abstract); 40 trained panellists	21.48 ± 28.01	7.91 ± 8.80	Condition with KCl more bitter No test result for this comparison in the abstract (full text not checked)
Ayyash 2013	Reference (abstract's statement across all groups: not significant; individual pairs unconfirmed): low-moisture mozzarella, NaCl:KCl = 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 vs NaCl only [abstract only] Salt at 46 g per kg of curd, either NaCl only or NaCl:KCl = 3:1, 1:1 or 1:3 (by weight), plasticised in a 4% brine of the same mixture. Amounts of other ingredients are not given in the abstract	bitterness (scale and number of panellists not given in the abstract)	No value in the abstract	No value in the abstract	Direction not given Tested, not significant

Conditions and results, study by study

For each study, the food and the substitution conditions, how samples were served and who rated them are set out next to the measured results. Each row is one "study × measured result", and a different formulation within the same study is a separate row. Under each row are its location in the paper and whether the row can be used for the comparison "whether, for the same food, replacing part or all of the salt with potassium chloride while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the salt-only condition", with the reason. No cell is left blank: "not given" (not stated in the paper), "not read" and "not applicable" are kept apart. Where a study's text and figure disagree, the disagreement is kept. Electronic tongue (taste sensor) results are kept apart from human ratings and are not rows.

Rybicka 2022 sensory only

The Development of Smoked Mackerel with Reduced Sodium Content. Foods 11(3):349 — doi:10.3390/foods11030349

How deeply checked: Checked in full text — Full text via the Europe PMC XML (methods 2.2, 2.11 and 2.12; results 3.8); Figure 3 obtained from the PMC figure page and bitterness values read approximately; an existing ledger source Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: Thawed fillets of chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus). In each of a nominal 5% and 10% brine: 100% NaCl, 75% NaCl + 25% KCl, 50% + 50% and 25% + 75% (the source says calculated from the molecular weight; readable as molar), 8 samples in all, 6 fillets each
Processing and cooking: Soaked in brine for 1 hour at 7 °C, rinsed with distilled water and drained overnight at 4 °C; dried at 40–55 °C for 2 hours and hot-smoked at 65 °C for 40 minutes; cooled and kept at 7 °C overnight
How it was served or eaten: Slices 30 mm wide and 12–15 mm thick wrapped in foil and kept at 7 °C, served within 3 hours at room temperature (20 °C) on white plates; one session (40–60 minutes), rinsing with water and crackers between samples
Who rated, on what scale: 6 trained panellists (aged 30–60, 60% women; from the institute's fish and seafood expert panel, with extra training on salty and bitter taste, smoke and off-flavours); 5-point intensity scale 0–4; factorial analysis of variance (brine × substitution) and Tukey's HSD (p≤0.05)

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 5% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 75% NaCl + 25% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	about 0.3 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0 (approximate, from the figure; no visible bar)	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, not significant
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. Factorial analysis of variance (brine × substitution) and Tukey's HSD (p≤0.05). In Figure 3 the bitterness letters are a for NaCl only and 25% and b for 50% and 75% in both brines (letters across all 8 samples). This pair shares a letter, so no significant difference was shown (which does not mean there is no difference). The text says NaCl only and 25% were not perceived as bitter in either brine (means 0.0–0.3). Error bars are large (6 panellists), and readings from the figure have a margin of about ±0.2. Saltiness also changed significantly with substitution and brine (interaction p=0.0439) Where: Methods 2.2, 2.11 and 2.12; Results 3.8; Figure 3 (bitter taste) For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same fillets brined with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl within the same brine strength and the other processing the same; intensity rated by 6 trained panellists with a test. The substitution reads as molar, so the proportion cannot be lined up with studies that substituted by weight
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 5% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 50% NaCl + 50% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	about 1.8 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0 (approximate, from the figure; no visible bar)	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. Factorial analysis of variance (brine × substitution) and Tukey's HSD (p≤0.05). In Figure 3 the bitterness letters are a for NaCl only and 25% and b for 50% and 75% in both brines (letters across all 8 samples). This pair has different letters and is significantly higher. The text says 50% and 75% did not differ significantly in either brine. Error bars are large (6 panellists), and readings from the figure have a margin of about ±0.2. Saltiness also changed significantly with substitution and brine (interaction p=0.0439) Where: Methods 2.2, 2.11 and 2.12; Results 3.8; Figure 3 (bitter taste) For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same fillets brined with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl within the same brine strength and the other processing the same; intensity rated by 6 trained panellists with a test. The substitution reads as molar, so the proportion cannot be lined up with studies that substituted by weight
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 75% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 5% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 25% NaCl + 75% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	about 2.6 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0 (approximate, from the figure; no visible bar)	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. Factorial analysis of variance (brine × substitution) and Tukey's HSD (p≤0.05). In Figure 3 the bitterness letters are a for NaCl only and 25% and b for 50% and 75% in both brines (letters across all 8 samples). This pair has different letters and is significantly higher. The text says 50% and 75% did not differ significantly in either brine. Error bars are large (6 panellists), and readings from the figure have a margin of about ±0.2. Saltiness also changed significantly with substitution and brine (interaction p=0.0439) Where: Methods 2.2, 2.11 and 2.12; Results 3.8; Figure 3 (bitter taste) For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same fillets brined with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl within the same brine strength and the other processing the same; intensity rated by 6 trained panellists with a test. The substitution reads as molar, so the proportion cannot be lined up with studies that substituted by weight
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 10% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 75% NaCl + 25% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	about 0.3 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0.1–0.2 (approximate, from the figure)	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, not significant
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. Factorial analysis of variance (brine × substitution) and Tukey's HSD (p≤0.05). In Figure 3 the bitterness letters are a for NaCl only and 25% and b for 50% and 75% in both brines (letters across all 8 samples). This pair shares a letter, so no significant difference was shown (which does not mean there is no difference). The text says NaCl only and 25% were not perceived as bitter in either brine (means 0.0–0.3). Error bars are large (6 panellists), and readings from the figure have a margin of about ±0.2. Saltiness also changed significantly with substitution and brine (interaction p=0.0439) Where: Methods 2.2, 2.11 and 2.12; Results 3.8; Figure 3 (bitter taste) For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same fillets brined with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl within the same brine strength and the other processing the same; intensity rated by 6 trained panellists with a test. The substitution reads as molar, so the proportion cannot be lined up with studies that substituted by weight
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 10% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 50% NaCl + 50% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	about 2.1 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0.1–0.2 (approximate, from the figure)	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. Factorial analysis of variance (brine × substitution) and Tukey's HSD (p≤0.05). In Figure 3 the bitterness letters are a for NaCl only and 25% and b for 50% and 75% in both brines (letters across all 8 samples). This pair has different letters and is significantly higher. The text says 50% and 75% did not differ significantly in either brine. Error bars are large (6 panellists), and readings from the figure have a margin of about ±0.2. Saltiness also changed significantly with substitution and brine (interaction p=0.0439) Where: Methods 2.2, 2.11 and 2.12; Results 3.8; Figure 3 (bitter taste) For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same fillets brined with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl within the same brine strength and the other processing the same; intensity rated by 6 trained panellists with a test. The substitution reads as molar, so the proportion cannot be lined up with studies that substituted by weight
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 75% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Hot-smoked chub mackerel fillets soaked for 1 hour at 7 °C in a nominal 10% brine, dried and hot-smoked at 65 °C. A is 25% NaCl + 75% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as a molar basis; the weighed amounts of each salt are not given). Within the same brine strength, the other processing is the same	about 2.0 (approximate, from the figure)	about 0.1–0.2 (approximate, from the figure)	bitterness intensity 0–4 (0 = absent, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate, 3 = strong, 4 = extreme); mean of 6 trained panellists	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. Factorial analysis of variance (brine × substitution) and Tukey's HSD (p≤0.05). In Figure 3 the bitterness letters are a for NaCl only and 25% and b for 50% and 75% in both brines (letters across all 8 samples). This pair has different letters and is significantly higher. The text says 50% and 75% did not differ significantly in either brine. Error bars are large (6 panellists), and readings from the figure have a margin of about ±0.2. Saltiness also changed significantly with substitution and brine (interaction p=0.0439) Where: Methods 2.2, 2.11 and 2.12; Results 3.8; Figure 3 (bitter taste) For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same fillets brined with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl within the same brine strength and the other processing the same; intensity rated by 6 trained panellists with a test. The substitution reads as molar, so the proportion cannot be lined up with studies that substituted by weight

Du 2022 sensory only

Influence of Partial Replacements of NaCl by KCl on Quality Characteristics and the Heterocyclic Aromatic Amine Contents of Bacon. Foods 11(2):143 — doi:10.3390/foods11020143

How deeply checked: Checked in full text — Full text via the Europe PMC XML (methods 2.2, 2.6 and 2.9; results 3.4; Table 2) Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: Pork bellies (3 batches × 20). Brine with total salts 90 g/L and sodium nitrite 500 mg/L: 100% NaCl, 90% + 10% KCl, 80% + 20% and 70% + 30%, 4 treatments
Processing and cooking: Brine injected at about 10% of the meat weight and held at 4 °C for 20 hours; dried at 45 °C for 30 minutes and smoked at 55 and 65 °C; frozen, sliced at 2 mm, vacuum-packed at −18 °C and tested within 7 days
How it was served or eaten: Pan-fried at 150–170 °C for about 2 minutes, cut into 1 cm × 3 cm pieces and kept in an oven at 45 °C
Who rated, on what scale: 12 university staff and graduate students rated across 3 sessions, with about 3 hours of training before each (bitterness with quinine hydrochloride 0.001 and 0.01 g/L); 7-point scale (1 = none, 4 = average intensity, 7 = extremely intense); analysis of variance and Duncan (p<0.05), mean ± standard error

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Bacon: 10% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Pork belly injected with brine (total salts 90 g/L, sodium nitrite 500 mg/L), held at 4 °C for 20 hours and smoked; for the sensory test it was pan-fried for about 2 minutes and kept at 45 °C. A is 90% NaCl + 10% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The proportion is of the total salt (readable as by weight; not stated explicitly in the source)	2.04 ± 0.39	2.15 ± 0.35	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = none, 4 = average intensity, 7 = extremely intense); mean ± standard error, 12 panellists over 3 sessions	NaCl-only condition more bitter Tested, not significant
Direction shows which published value is larger. Analysis of variance with Duncan's multiple comparison (p<0.05). In Table 2 the letters are B for NaCl only, 10% and 20%, and A for 30%. This pair shares a letter (B), so no significant difference was shown; the published mean is lower on the KCl side. The text says 30% was higher than the other 3 and that NaCl only, 10% and 20% did not differ significantly. Saltiness is lower at 30% (3.96 against 4.27, rated as a separate item). Bitterness training used quinine hydrochloride solutions Where: Methods 2.2, 2.6 and 2.9; Results 3.4; Table 2 For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same pork belly, the same total salt (90 g/L) and the same sodium nitrite, with only part of the NaCl replaced by KCl; intensity rated by 12 panellists with a test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Bacon: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Pork belly injected with brine (total salts 90 g/L, sodium nitrite 500 mg/L), held at 4 °C for 20 hours and smoked; for the sensory test it was pan-fried for about 2 minutes and kept at 45 °C. A is 80% NaCl + 20% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The proportion is of the total salt (readable as by weight; not stated explicitly in the source)	2.15 ± 0.30	2.15 ± 0.35	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = none, 4 = average intensity, 7 = extremely intense); mean ± standard error, 12 panellists over 3 sessions	Same published value (not a test of equivalence) Tested, not significant
Direction shows which published value is larger. Analysis of variance with Duncan's multiple comparison (p<0.05). In Table 2 the letters are B for NaCl only, 10% and 20%, and A for 30%. This pair shares a letter (B), so no significant difference was shown; the published means are the same value (not a test of equivalence). The text says 30% was higher than the other 3 and that NaCl only, 10% and 20% did not differ significantly. Saltiness is lower at 30% (3.96 against 4.27, rated as a separate item). Bitterness training used quinine hydrochloride solutions Where: Methods 2.2, 2.6 and 2.9; Results 3.4; Table 2 For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same pork belly, the same total salt (90 g/L) and the same sodium nitrite, with only part of the NaCl replaced by KCl; intensity rated by 12 panellists with a test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Bacon: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Pork belly injected with brine (total salts 90 g/L, sodium nitrite 500 mg/L), held at 4 °C for 20 hours and smoked; for the sensory test it was pan-fried for about 2 minutes and kept at 45 °C. A is 70% NaCl + 30% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. The proportion is of the total salt (readable as by weight; not stated explicitly in the source)	3.31 ± 0.41	2.15 ± 0.35	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = none, 4 = average intensity, 7 = extremely intense); mean ± standard error, 12 panellists over 3 sessions	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Direction shows which published value is larger. Analysis of variance with Duncan's multiple comparison (p<0.05). In Table 2 the letters are B for NaCl only, 10% and 20%, and A for 30%. This pair has different letters (A for 30%, B for NaCl only) and is significantly higher. The text says 30% was higher than the other 3 and that NaCl only, 10% and 20% did not differ significantly. Saltiness is lower at 30% (3.96 against 4.27, rated as a separate item). Bitterness training used quinine hydrochloride solutions Where: Methods 2.2, 2.6 and 2.9; Results 3.4; Table 2 For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same pork belly, the same total salt (90 g/L) and the same sodium nitrite, with only part of the NaCl replaced by KCl; intensity rated by 12 panellists with a test

Qin 2023 sensory only

Flavour Profile of Traditional Dry Sausage Prepared with Partial Substitution of NaCl with KCl. Foods 12(2):388 — doi:10.3390/foods12020388

How deeply checked: Checked in full text — Full text via the Europe PMC XML (methods 2.2, 2.9 and 2.10; results 3.7); Figure 4 obtained from the PMC figure page and bitterness values read approximately Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: Traditional dry sausage: lean pork 2700 g and back fat 300 g with 75.0 g of salt; 2.50% NaCl (control), 2.00% NaCl + 0.50% KCl (20%), 1.75% + 0.75% (30%) and 1.50% + 1.00% (40%), 4 treatments by weight
Processing and cooking: Sodium nitrite 0.27 g, wine 30.0 g, glucose 30.0 g, ginger 15.0 g, MSG 9.0 g, water 150 g and spices 24.0 g in all treatments; fermented for 12 days; 3 independent batches
How it was served or eaten: Sausages on day 12 heated at 100 °C for 20 minutes, sliced at 5 mm and served at random on plates coded with 4 digits
Who rated, on what scale: 20 food professionals (10 men, 10 women) trained over 3 sessions; 7-point scale (1 = low, 7 = high); mixed model with treatment fixed and sausage, session, order and panellist random, then Tukey (p<0.05)

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Dry sausage: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Lean pork 2700 g and back fat 300 g with 75.0 g of salt (2.5% of the meat). A is 2.00% NaCl + 0.50% KCl (20% substitution by weight), B is 2.50% NaCl. MSG 9.0 g and glucose, wine, ginger, spices and sodium nitrite are the same in all treatments. Rated on day 12 of fermentation after heating at 100 °C for 20 minutes and slicing	about 2.5 (approximate, from the figure)	about 2.2 (approximate, from the figure)	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = low, 7 = high); mean of 20 food professionals	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, not significant
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. Mixed model with treatment fixed and sausage, session, order and panellist random, then Tukey (p<0.05). In Figure 4 the bitterness letters are b for NaCl only and 20%, ab for 30% and a for 40%. Both have the letter b in the figure, so no significant difference was shown for this pair. Readings from the figure have a margin of about ±0.3. The abstract's statement that bitterness rose significantly may cover both the electronic tongue and the sensory test Where: Methods 2.2, 2.9 and 2.10; Results 3.7; Figure 4 For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same raw materials, the same total salt (2.5%) and the same seasonings, with only part of the NaCl replaced by KCl; intensity rated by 20 panellists with a test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Dry sausage: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only [text and figure letters disagree] Lean pork 2700 g and back fat 300 g with 75.0 g of salt (2.5% of the meat). A is 1.75% NaCl + 0.75% KCl (30% substitution by weight), B is 2.50% NaCl. MSG 9.0 g and glucose, wine, ginger, spices and sodium nitrite are the same in all treatments. Rated on day 12 of fermentation after heating at 100 °C for 20 minutes and slicing	about 2.8 (approximate, from the figure)	about 2.2 (approximate, from the figure)	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = low, 7 = high); mean of 20 food professionals	Condition with KCl more bitter Test results conflict between text and figure
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. Mixed model with treatment fixed and sausage, session, order and panellist random, then Tukey (p<0.05). In Figure 4 the bitterness letters are b for NaCl only and 20%, ab for 30% and a for 40%. The text (3.7) says 30% and 40% differed significantly from the control, with lower saltiness and higher bitterness and metallic taste, but in the figure the bitterness letter for 30% is ab, sharing b with the control, so the text and the figure disagree; neither is rewritten to match the other. Because the text and the figure disagree and the result for this pair cannot be settled as one, it is described as neither significant nor not significant. Readings from the figure have a margin of about ±0.3. The abstract's statement that bitterness rose significantly may cover both the electronic tongue and the sensory test Where: Methods 2.2, 2.9 and 2.10; Results 3.7; Figure 4 For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Limited — The same raw materials, the same total salt (2.5%) and the same seasonings, with only part of the NaCl replaced by KCl; intensity rated by 20 panellists with a test; but for 30% the text and the figure letters disagree
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Dry sausage: 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Lean pork 2700 g and back fat 300 g with 75.0 g of salt (2.5% of the meat). A is 1.50% NaCl + 1.00% KCl (40% substitution by weight), B is 2.50% NaCl. MSG 9.0 g and glucose, wine, ginger, spices and sodium nitrite are the same in all treatments. Rated on day 12 of fermentation after heating at 100 °C for 20 minutes and slicing	about 3.4 (approximate, from the figure)	about 2.2 (approximate, from the figure)	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = low, 7 = high); mean of 20 food professionals	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, significant
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. Mixed model with treatment fixed and sausage, session, order and panellist random, then Tukey (p<0.05). In Figure 4 the bitterness letters are b for NaCl only and 20%, ab for 30% and a for 40%. The letters differ (a for 40%, b for the control), and the text also says 30% and 40% differed significantly from the control. Readings from the figure have a margin of about ±0.3. The abstract's statement that bitterness rose significantly may cover both the electronic tongue and the sensory test Where: Methods 2.2, 2.9 and 2.10; Results 3.7; Figure 4 For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same raw materials, the same total salt (2.5%) and the same seasonings, with only part of the NaCl replaced by KCl; intensity rated by 20 panellists with a test

Park 2026 sensory only

Strategy for balancing quality and moderate sodium reduction in beef patties through Maillard reaction modulation by banana peel extract. Food Chemistry: X 37:104094 — doi:10.1016/j.fochx.2026.104094

How deeply checked: Checked in full text — Full text via the Europe PMC XML (methods 2.2, 2.5.1 and 2.7; results 3.3.2); Figure 4 obtained from the PMC figure page and bitterness values read approximately Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: Patties of beef semimembranosus (3 animals, each a replicate) and pork back fat; 1.0% NaCl (S), 0.5% NaCl (LS), 0.5% NaCl + 0.5% KCl (KS) and 0.5% NaCl + 0.5% banana peel extract (ES), 4 treatments by weight
Processing and cooking: Lean:fat:water:garlic powder:onion powder:black pepper = 70:20:7.2:0.5:2.0:0.3 (by weight), seasonings the same in all treatments; shaped to 100 g and 10 cm across and stored at −80 °C; grilled at 180 °C with 5 mL of soybean oil, 5 minutes per side for 10 minutes, to a core temperature of 72 °C
How it was served or eaten: Served with three-digit codes, rinsing with water and plain crackers between samples (serving temperature not found in the parts read)
Who rated, on what scale: 13 trained panellists experienced in descriptive evaluation of meat (8 men, 5 women, aged 23–33), with at least 2 preliminary sessions; 7-point scale (1 = weak, 7 = strong), bitterness anchored with caffeine 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04% as 1, 4 and 7; one-way analysis of variance and Tukey (p<0.05)

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Beef patty: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Patties of lean beef and pork back fat (lean:fat:water:garlic powder:onion powder:black pepper = 70:20:7.2:0.5:2.0:0.3, seasonings the same in all treatments). A is 0.5% NaCl + 0.5% KCl (50% substitution by weight), B is 1.0% NaCl. Neither has banana peel extract. Grilled at 180 °C for 10 minutes to a core temperature of 72 °C	about 3.3 (approximate, from the figure)	about 3.2 (approximate, from the figure)	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = weak, 7 = strong; caffeine 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04% as references for 1, 4 and 7); mean of 13 trained panellists	Condition with KCl more bitter Tested, not significant
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. One-way analysis of variance and Tukey (p<0.05). Both have the letter a in Figure 4; the mean in the figure is slightly higher on the KCl side, but no significant difference was shown (which does not mean there is no difference). Error bars are large. The condition with NaCl simply reduced to 0.5% (about 1.9, b) has a different total salt and is not a row. Electronic tongue results are kept apart from the human ratings Where: Methods 2.2, 2.5.1 and 2.7; Results 3.3.2; Figure 4 For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Usable — The same raw materials, the same seasonings and the same total salt (1.0%), with half of the NaCl replaced by KCl; intensity rated by 13 trained panellists with a test

Musiienko 2025 sensory only

Impact of NaCl reduction and substitution with KCl and CaCl2 on quality attributes of wheat-based bakery products. Frontiers in Nutrition 12:1657034 — doi:10.3389/fnut.2025.1657034

How deeply checked: Checked in full text — Full text via the Europe PMC XML (methods 2, 2.1 and 2.3; Tables 1–3; results 3.1; discussion) Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: 8 doughs of 1000 g of flour: samples 1–4 NaCl only (20.0, 18.0, 14.4 and 12.6 g), samples 5 and 6 14.4 g NaCl + 3.6 g KCl and 12.6 g NaCl + 5.4 g KCl, samples 7 and 8 substituted with CaCl2; the pairs for this question are sample 2 against 5 and 6 (total salt 18.0 g)
Processing and cooking: Water 550 g (18 °C), fresh yeast 40 g, rapeseed oil 40 g and baking improver 10 g; kneaded and rested 40 minutes, shaped as two-thirds rolls and one-third buns, proofed at 30 °C for 40 minutes and baked at 220 °C for 12 minutes
How it was served or eaten: Both crust and crumb rated (serving details not found in the parts read)
Who rated, on what scale: 43 semi-trained assessors with basic training (22 men, 21 women, aged 19–74); 100 mm line scale with bitterness from 0% = not perceived to 100% = very strong; Kruskal–Wallis, then Dunn with Benjamini–Hochberg correction when significant

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Per 1000 g of flour, A is 14.4 g NaCl + 3.6 g KCl (20% substitution by weight), B is 18.0 g NaCl (the same total salt). Water 550 g, yeast 40 g, rapeseed oil 40 g and baking improver 10 g are the same. Crust and crumb of rolls and buns baked at 220 °C for 12 minutes were rated	22 ± 22	17 ± 18	bitterness intensity (100 mm line scale, 0% = not perceived to 100% = very strong); mean ± standard deviation of 43 semi-trained assessors	Condition with KCl more bitter Test method described; result for this comparison not reported
Direction shows which published value is larger. Kruskal–Wallis, followed by Dunn's pairwise comparisons with Benjamini–Hochberg correction when significant. The attributes the text reports as significantly different are overall flavour pleasantness, saltiness and aftertaste; no individual result for the bitterness pairs is given (nor is it stated to be not significant). The discussion says samples 6–8 with more substitution had stronger bitter, metallic and soapy tastes, but in Table 3 bitterness for sample 6 (30%) is 14, lower than NaCl only (17), so the discussion and the table disagree; the table values are used Where: Methods 2, 2.1 and 2.3; Tables 1–3; Results 3.1; Discussion For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Limited — The same dough and the same total salt (18.0 g per 1000 g of flour) with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl, but no individual test result for the bitterness pair is given
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Wheat bread: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Per 1000 g of flour, A is 12.6 g NaCl + 5.4 g KCl (30% substitution by weight), B is 18.0 g NaCl (the same total salt). Water 550 g, yeast 40 g, rapeseed oil 40 g and baking improver 10 g are the same. Crust and crumb of rolls and buns baked at 220 °C for 12 minutes were rated	14 ± 17	17 ± 18	bitterness intensity (100 mm line scale, 0% = not perceived to 100% = very strong); mean ± standard deviation of 43 semi-trained assessors	NaCl-only condition more bitter Test method described; result for this comparison not reported
Direction shows which published value is larger. Kruskal–Wallis, followed by Dunn's pairwise comparisons with Benjamini–Hochberg correction when significant. The attributes the text reports as significantly different are overall flavour pleasantness, saltiness and aftertaste; no individual result for the bitterness pairs is given (nor is it stated to be not significant). The discussion says samples 6–8 with more substitution had stronger bitter, metallic and soapy tastes, but in Table 3 bitterness for sample 6 (30%) is 14, lower than NaCl only (17), so the discussion and the table disagree; the table values are used Where: Methods 2, 2.1 and 2.3; Tables 1–3; Results 3.1; Discussion For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Limited — The same dough and the same total salt (18.0 g per 1000 g of flour) with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl, but no individual test result for the bitterness pair is given

Wang 2024 sensory only

Effect of Inoculation with Autochthonous Lactic Acid Bacteria on Flavor, Texture, and Color Formation of Dry Sausages with NaCl Partly Substituted by KCl. Foods 13(11):1747 — doi:10.3390/foods13111747

How deeply checked: Checked in full text — Full text via the Europe PMC XML (methods 2.2, 2.7 and 2.8; results 3.5); Figure 4A obtained from the PMC figure page and bitterness values read approximately Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: Dry sausage, 6 treatments: controls of 2.50% NaCl (CT) and 1.50% NaCl + 1.00% KCl (CS, 40% substitution by weight), and 4 treatments of CS each inoculated with one of 4 lactic acid bacteria; the pair for this question is CT against CS
Processing and cooking: Lean pork 3600 g and back fat 400 g with dextrose 100 g, liquor 20.0 g, flavour enhancer 6.0 g, spices 6.0 g, sodium ascorbate 0.20 g and sodium nitrite 0.18 g; fermented for 9 days; 3 batches
How it was served or eaten: Cooked on day 9 of fermentation before being served at random (because it is cooked before eating in China); 108 sausages over 6 sessions
Who rated, on what scale: 20 panellists experienced in rating dry sausage (aged 20–30, 10 men and 10 women), 3 training sessions following ISO 8586; 1 (not perceived) to 7 (maximum); one-way analysis of variance and Tukey (p<0.05)

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Dry sausage (the two controls of a lactic acid bacteria study): 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only Lean pork 3600 g and back fat 400 g. A is 1.50% NaCl + 1.00% KCl (40% substitution by weight), B is 2.50% NaCl. Glucose, liquor, flavour enhancer, spices, sodium nitrite and so on are the same, and neither was inoculated with lactic acid bacteria. Rated on day 9 of fermentation after cooking	about 3.4–3.5 (approximate, from the figure)	about 2.2 (approximate, from the figure)	bitterness intensity 1–7 (1 = not perceived, 7 = maximum); mean of 20 panellists experienced in rating dry sausage	Condition with KCl more bitter Test method described; result for this comparison not reported
Direction shows which published value (approximate, from the figure) is larger. The methods give one-way analysis of variance and Tukey (p<0.05), but Figure 4A has no letters or error bars for bitterness and the text gives no bitterness result for this pair. The text says only that inoculating one lactic acid bacterium (L. sakei) lowered the bitterness of the KCl sausages. A separate experiment from the same lab's 2023 study Where: Methods 2.2, 2.7 and 2.8; Results 3.5; Figure 4A For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Limited — The two controls have the same raw materials and the same total salt (2.5%) with part of the NaCl replaced by KCl, but no test result for bitterness in this pair is given

Zonoubi and Goli 2021 sensory only

The effect of complete replacing sodium with potassium, calcium, and magnesium brine on sodium‐free ultrafiltration Feta cheese at the end of the 60‐day ripening period: Physicochemical, proteolysis–lipolysis indices, microbial, colorimetric, and sensory evaluation. Food Science & Nutrition 9(2):866-874 — doi:10.1002/fsn3.2050

How deeply checked: Checked in full text — Full text via the Europe PMC XML (methods 2.2, 2.7 and 2.8; results; Table 4); the columns of Table 4 were checked against the table structure in the XML Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: Ultrafiltered Feta from low-fat (1%) milk; 4 treatments with the brine salt entirely NaCl, KCl, MgCl2 or CaCl2 (full replacement); the pair for this question is KCl against NaCl
Processing and cooking: After concentration, homogenisation and pasteurisation, calcium chloride 0.015%, starter and coagulant added and coagulated at 37 °C for 8 hours; cut into 10 cm cubes, a nominal 10% brine added, then 25 °C for 24 hours and ripening at 5–8 °C for 60 days
How it was served or eaten: Rated on day 60 of ripening (serving details not given)
Who rated, on what scale: 20 trained panellists; aftertaste (salty, bitter, metallic) and other items rated on a 7-point hedonic scale, higher meaning higher quality; two-factor analysis of variance and Duncan (p<0.05)

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Quality score for the bitterness attribute (sensory; higher is better; not bitterness intensity)	Quality score (bitter-taste item; not an intensity rating): UF Feta, brine fully replaced with KCl vs NaCl Ultrafiltered Feta from low-fat milk after 60 days of ripening in a nominal 10% brine. A has all the brine salt as KCl, B all as NaCl (full replacement; whether the 10% is by weight or volume is not stated in the source). Calcium chloride 0.015% at manufacture and so on are the same	6.12 ± 0.24	6.45 ± 0.56	quality score for the bitter-taste item (7-point hedonic scale, higher means higher quality; whether a higher score means less bitter is not stated in the source); mean ± standard deviation of 20 trained panellists	NaCl-only condition higher Tested, not significant
Direction shows which published value is larger; it is not a direction of bitterness intensity. Two-factor analysis of variance and Duncan (p<0.05). In Table 4 the letters are a for NaCl and ab for KCl, which share a, and the text also says salty, bitter and metallic taste did not differ significantly between NaCl and KCl brines. The quality score is not converted into bitterness intensity. Brines of CaCl2 and MgCl2 have lower quality scores for the bitter item (5.55 and 5.35), but they are not pairs for this question Where: Methods 2.2, 2.7 and 2.8; Results; Table 4 For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Not usable — A pair of the same cheese with all the brine salt replaced, with a test, but what was measured is a quality score (higher means better quality), not bitterness intensity; it is not used for comparing bitterness intensity

Wu 2014 sensory only

Proteolysis and sensory properties of dry-cured bacon as affected by the partial substitution of sodium chloride with potassium chloride. Meat Science 96(3):1325-1331 — doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.10.037

How deeply checked: Abstract only — Abstract only (the full text was not obtained this time; the values and test statements in the abstract were checked, while the methods, formulations and individual results in the full text were not) Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: Dry-cured bacon from 48 quadriceps femoris samples of 24 pigs; 100% NaCl, 60% NaCl + 40% KCl and 30% NaCl + 70% KCl, 3 treatments (by weight or molar not given in the abstract)
Processing and cooking: Not given in the abstract
How it was served or eaten: Not given in the abstract
Who rated, on what scale: Not given in the abstract (number of panellists, scale and test method are not in the abstract)

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Dry-cured bacon: 70% KCl substitution vs NaCl only [abstract only] Dry-cured bacon from pig quadriceps femoris (48 samples from 24 pigs). A is 30% NaCl + 70% KCl, B is 100% NaCl. Whether by weight or molar, and the amounts of other ingredients, are not given in the abstract	No value in the abstract	No value in the abstract	bitterness (scale and number of panellists not given in the abstract)	Direction not given Tested, significant
No values, so no direction label is given. The abstract says 70% replacement gave lower hardness and saltiness and higher juiciness and bitterness (p<0.05). For 40% replacement it says only that there was no adverse effect on sensory properties, without naming bitterness, so it is not a row. The full text was not obtained this time; only what the abstract states was checked Where: Abstract For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Limited — Abstract only; the basis of substitution, other ingredients, scale and number of panellists were not checked. The abstract gives p<0.05

Đorđević 2018 sensory only

Salt microspheres and potassium chloride usage for sodium reduction: Case study with sushi. Food Science and Technology International 24(1):3-14 — doi:10.1177/1082013217718965

How deeply checked: Abstract only — Abstract only (the full text was not obtained this time; the values and test statements in the abstract were checked, while the methods, formulations and individual results in the full text were not) Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: Two kinds of sushi (nigiri and maki) with salmon, tuna and shrimp, made with a KCl salt (sample name Mary), hollow microspheres of salt and regular salt (1960 samples in all); the abstract gives a concentration only for 2% NaCl
Processing and cooking: Not given in the abstract
How it was served or eaten: Not given in the abstract
Who rated, on what scale: 40 trained panellists (scale and test method are not in the abstract)

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Sushi (shrimp maki): KCl salt vs 2% NaCl [abstract only; no test result in the abstract] Shrimp maki. A uses a KCl salt (sample name Mary in the paper), B uses 2% NaCl. The KCl concentration, the proportion replaced and whether other ingredients were the same are not given in the abstract	21.48 ± 28.01	7.91 ± 8.80	bitterness (the scale and the meaning of ± are not given in the abstract); 40 trained panellists	Condition with KCl more bitter No test result for this comparison in the abstract (full text not checked)
Direction shows which published value is larger. The abstract says bitterness was higher with the KCl salt, but gives no test result (p). The full text was not obtained this time, so whether it gives a test method or result was not checked. Bitterness for the other kinds of sushi and fish is not given in the abstract Where: Abstract For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Limited — Abstract only; the KCl concentration, other ingredients, scale and test were not checked

Ayyash 2013 sensory only

Effect of partial NaCl substitution with KCl on the texture profile, microstructure, and sensory properties of low-moisture mozzarella cheese. Journal of Dairy Research 80(1):7-13 — doi:10.1017/s002202991200043x

How deeply checked: Abstract only — Abstract only (the full text was not obtained this time; the values and test statements in the abstract were checked, while the methods, formulations and individual results in the full text were not) Checked by: LLM (one extracted, another checked against the source; no human check), 2026-10-23.
Samples: Low-moisture mozzarella; NaCl only and NaCl:KCl = 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 (by weight), 4 kinds at 46 g per kg of curd
Processing and cooking: Plasticised in a 4% brine of the same mixture; rated during storage (details of days not given in the abstract)
How it was served or eaten: Not given in the abstract
Who rated, on what scale: Not given in the abstract (number of panellists, scale and test method are not in the abstract)

Measured	Comparison and condition	Condition with KCl	NaCl-only condition	Unit	Direction / test
Bitterness intensity (sensory)	Reference (abstract's statement across all groups: not significant; individual pairs unconfirmed): low-moisture mozzarella, NaCl:KCl = 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3 vs NaCl only [abstract only] Salt at 46 g per kg of curd, either NaCl only or NaCl:KCl = 3:1, 1:1 or 1:3 (by weight), plasticised in a 4% brine of the same mixture. Amounts of other ingredients are not given in the abstract	No value in the abstract	No value in the abstract	bitterness (scale and number of panellists not given in the abstract)	Direction not given Tested, not significant
No values, so no direction label is given. The abstract says creaminess, bitterness, saltiness, sour-acid and vinegary taste did not differ significantly at the same storage period. It is a statement across the 4 groups including NaCl only, and gives no values or order for each mixture and no test result for each individual pair against NaCl only. The label "tested, not significant" refers to this statement across all groups and is not extended to the 3 individual pairs. The full text was not obtained this time; only what the abstract states was checked Where: Abstract For whether, for the same food (or solution), replacing part or all of the NaCl with KCl while keeping the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions changes the intensity of bitterness people perceive compared with the NaCl-only condition: Limited — Abstract only, with only a statement about a test across the 4 groups including NaCl only; no values or order for each mixture and no test result for individual pairs

What was established within an experiment

Only results observed in comparisons within the same study are given here. Results without a reported test are described as such.

In hot-smoked mackerel (6 trained panellists, intensity 0–4), the source says the proportions were calculated from the molecular weight. In the 10% brine, approximately from the figure, NaCl only was about 0.1–0.2 against about 0.3 for 25%, about 2.1 for 50% and about 2.0 for 75%, with letters a for NaCl only and 25% and b for 50% and 75%. The text says 50% and 75% did not differ significantly in either brine. [rows: Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 10% brine: 75% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
In bacon (12 panellists over 3 sessions, 1–7 points), with the total salt kept at 90 g/L in the brine, bitterness at 30% substitution was 3.31, significantly higher than NaCl only, 10% and 20% (Duncan, p<0.05). At the same 30%, saltiness was lower, 3.96 against 4.27 (rated as a separate item). [rows: Du 2022 Bacon: 10% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
In dry sausage (20 panellists, 1–7 points, day 12 of fermentation), the bitterness letters in the figure were b for NaCl only and 20%, ab for 30% and a for 40%. The text says 30% and 40% differed significantly from the control with higher bitterness and metallic taste, so for 30% the text and the figure letters disagree. This page does not rewrite either to match the other and keeps both. [rows: Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only [text and figure letters disagree]; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
Wheat bread (43 semi-trained assessors, 100 mm line scale) has pairs with the total salt matched at 18.0 g per 1000 g of flour; the mean bitterness was 22 for 20% substitution, 14 for 30% substitution and 17 for NaCl only. The attributes the text reports as significantly different are overall flavour pleasantness, saltiness and aftertaste, and there is no individual result for the bitterness pairs. The discussion's sentence that samples with more substitution were more bitter does not match the bitterness values in the table. [rows: Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
In beef patty (13 trained panellists, 1–7 points), 1.0% NaCl and 0.5% NaCl + 0.5% KCl had the same letter a in Figure 4. The condition with NaCl simply reduced to 0.5% was lower with letter b, but it has a different total salt and is not a row. Electronic tongue results are kept apart from the human ratings. [rows: Park 2026 Beef patty: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]

Candidate explanations for the differences

Conditions that differ between studies and might explain differences in results, and the authors' interpretations. Several conditions differ at once, so which one mattered is not known. These are candidates, not causes.

The basis of the proportion differs by study. Hot-smoked mackerel says the amounts were calculated from the molecular weight (readable as molar), while bacon, dry sausage, beef patty and wheat bread use proportions by weight (not stated explicitly for bacon). Even at the same 50%, the amount of KCl differs between a molar and a weight basis, so the stated proportions cannot be lined up across studies. [rows: Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Park 2026 Beef patty: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 10% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
The food and the way it was served differ. Mackerel was cooled smoked fillet, bacon was pan-fried and kept at 45 °C, dry sausage was heated and sliced after fermentation, beef patty was grilled, and bread was crust and crumb. Fat, flavour enhancers, spices and whether the food was fermented also differ by study. The authors of the lactic acid bacteria study relate the lower bitterness of KCl sausages after inoculation to sourness and aroma, but this comparison does not test that. [rows: Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Park 2026 Beef patty: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Wang 2024 Dry sausage (the two controls of a lactic acid bacteria study): 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
The raters and scales differ: intensity 0–4 by 6 trained panellists, 1–7 points by 12 panellists, 1–7 points by 20 panellists, 1–7 points by 13 trained panellists, and a 100 mm line scale by 43 semi-trained assessors. In studies with few raters and large error bars, a significant difference may be harder to show (an inference). [rows: Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Park 2026 Beef patty: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]

What is not known — what this comparison alone cannot separate

In some studies saltiness fell at the same time when KCl was substituted (3.96 against 4.27 for 30% in bacon; the text of the dry sausage study). Whether the bitterness scores rose because of the bitterness of KCl itself or because bitterness stood out as saltiness fell cannot be separated by this comparison alone. [rows: Du 2022 Bacon: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
Four full-text studies varied the proportion in two or more steps for the same food: hot-smoked mackerel (25, 50 and 75%), bacon (10, 20 and 30%), dry sausage (20, 30 and 40%) and wheat bread (20 and 30%), each a single experiment in one lab. The one bacon study and the two dry sausage studies are reports from the same university with overlapping co-authors and are not counted as independent replications. Whether the results at each proportion would be the same in other labs cannot be told from this table. [rows: Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 25% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 50% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Rybicka 2022 Hot-smoked mackerel, 5% brine: 75% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 10% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Du 2022 Bacon: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only [text and figure letters disagree]; Qin 2023 Dry sausage: 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Wang 2024 Dry sausage (the two controls of a lactic acid bacteria study): 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]
For the wheat bread pairs and the dry sausage pair without lactic acid bacteria, no test result for bitterness is given, so whether the order of the values goes beyond chance is not known. [rows: Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 20% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Musiienko 2025 Wheat bread: 30% KCl substitution vs NaCl only; Wang 2024 Dry sausage (the two controls of a lactic acid bacteria study): 40% KCl substitution vs NaCl only]

How studies and rows were counted

The number of evidence rows is not the number of studies. Table rows, ledger evidence rows, papers and research groups are counted separately. Rows from the same study are scores from the same raters and are not independent. The bacon study and the two dry sausage studies are reports from the same university with overlapping co-authors, so they are counted as one research group in the ledger. The number of sources shown automatically below is the number of all sources in the table, including the three abstract-only studies and the one cheese quality score study. The six studies at the top of the page are those whose bitterness intensity values or tests were checked in full text. The number of studies with bitterness results includes the abstract-only studies and excludes the cheese quality score study. The one source that the list below describes as showing results only on something else (a quality score for the bitterness attribute) is this cheese study. Because the counting differs, the numbers do not match.

Sources in the table: 10, of which 9 have results on people's bitterness ratings in this table; for the others, only results on something else (a quality score for the bitterness attribute) are shown, or they are used only for context.
Rows in the table (study × measured result): 20. Rows on perceived bitterness: 19.
Evidence rows in the lab's ledger these rows rest on: 0. One paper can supply several rows. Rows without a ledger evidence row come from other tables of the same papers, or from sources newly read for this question.
Research groups among the studies with bitterness results in this table, as grouped in the ledger: 7 (reports from the same lab count as 1; co-authors and affiliations can overlap, so this is not a count of independent replications).

What we looked at

The sources looked at for this question, and why each was included or excluded, are recorded here. Potassium chloride sources already in the lab's ledger were reviewed, and Europe PMC was searched with combinations of potassium chloride, sodium, bitterness and sensory terms; candidates with full text were saved and read. For studies whose abstract only was read, without obtaining the full text this time, the rows say that the values and test statements in the abstract were checked while the methods, formulations and individual results in the full text were not. Studies whose abstract states no direction or test for bitterness are not rows. A study of solutions of potassium chloride-based mixed salts was excluded because another ingredient was added to one side only. Mixture designs that vary potassium chloride together with other salts, such as the olive studies, cannot separate the effect of potassium chloride alone and were treated as context. Studies whose formulation pairs are within scope but whose scale cannot be interpreted, or whose bitterness values are in a supplementary figure that was not obtained, are recorded as on hold with the reason. Japanese studies seen only by title on J-STAGE (soy sauce, miso and pickles) were not read, not even their abstracts, and are not in the table. The search described here is a record and does not show that nothing was missed.

Source	Decision	Why
The Development of Smoked Mackerel with Reduced Sodium Content (2022) doi	Included in the table	Bitterness intensity of NaCl only and 25, 50 and 75% KCl substitution in hot-smoked mackerel at each of 2 brine strengths, compared by 6 trained panellists with a test; values are approximate readings from Figure 3; an existing ledger source; read in full
Influence of Partial Replacements of NaCl by KCl on Quality Characteristics and the Heterocyclic Aromatic Amine Contents of Bacon (2022) doi	Included in the table	Bitterness intensity of 10, 20 and 30% KCl substitution and NaCl only in bacon with the same total salt, compared by 12 panellists, with values and a test in a table; read in full
Flavour Profile of Traditional Dry Sausage Prepared with Partial Substitution of NaCl with KCl (2023) doi	Included in the table	Bitterness intensity of 20, 30 and 40% KCl substitution and NaCl only in dry sausage with the same total salt, compared by 20 panellists with a test; values are approximate readings from Figure 4; for 30% the text and figure letters disagree; read in full
Strategy for balancing quality and moderate sodium reduction in beef patties through Maillard reaction modulation by banana peel extract (2026) doi	Included in the table	Bitterness intensity of 1.0% NaCl and 0.5% NaCl + 0.5% KCl in beef patty compared by 13 trained panellists with a test; values are approximate readings from Figure 4; the banana peel extract condition is not a pair for this question; read in full
Impact of NaCl reduction and substitution with KCl and CaCl2 on quality attributes of wheat-based bakery products (2025) doi	Included in the table	Bitterness intensity of 20 and 30% KCl substitution and NaCl only in wheat bread with the same total salt, rated by 43 semi-trained assessors, with values in a table; no individual test result for the bitterness pairs; read in full
Effect of Inoculation with Autochthonous Lactic Acid Bacteria on Flavor, Texture, and Color Formation of Dry Sausages with NaCl Partly Substituted by KCl (2024) doi	Included in the table	In a study of inoculating lactic acid bacteria, bitterness intensity of the two uninoculated controls (2.50% NaCl and 40% KCl substitution) rated by 20 panellists; values are approximate readings from Figure 4A and no test result for this pair is given; read in full
The effect of complete replacing sodium with potassium, calcium, and magnesium brine on sodium‐free ultrafiltration Feta cheese at the end of the 60‐day ripening period: Physicochemical, proteolysis–lipolysis indices, microbial, colorimetric, and sensory evaluation (2021) doi	Included in the table	UF Feta with all of the brine salt replaced by KCl compared with NaCl by 20 trained panellists using a quality score for the bitter-taste item (higher means better quality), with a test; not bitterness intensity, so kept apart from the intensity rows; read in full
Proteolysis and sensory properties of dry-cured bacon as affected by the partial substitution of sodium chloride with potassium chloride (2014) doi	Included in the table	Abstract only. The abstract says 70% KCl substitution in dry-cured bacon gave higher bitterness (p<0.05). The full text was not obtained this time; only what the abstract states was checked
Salt microspheres and potassium chloride usage for sodium reduction: Case study with sushi (2018) doi	Included in the table	Abstract only. The abstract gives bitterness values for a KCl salt and 2% NaCl in shrimp maki (40 trained panellists); no test result or KCl concentration in the abstract. A free full-text candidate is listed, but the full text was not obtained this time; only the values in the abstract were checked
Effect of partial NaCl substitution with KCl on the texture profile, microstructure, and sensory properties of low-moisture mozzarella cheese (2013) doi	Included in the table	Abstract only. The abstract says bitterness did not differ significantly across the 4 groups of NaCl only and NaCl:KCl = 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3. With no values or order for each mixture and no test result for individual pairs, it is listed as a reference with only the statement across all groups. A free full-text candidate is listed, but the full text was not obtained this time
Effect of Carrot Pulp Incorporation and Partial Sodium Chloride Replacement on Hybrid Burger Characteristics (2025) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	On hold. The pairs of 1.5% NaCl and NaCl + KCl (30 and 50% by weight), both with 5% carrot pulp, are within scope. But the methods describe a 9-point scale from dislike very much to like very much, while the authors read the results as bitterness intensity, so the scale and the interpretation disagree and it is not an intensity row (29 untrained consumers, Figure 1, one-way analysis of variance and Duncan)
Effect of the Partial Substitution of Sodium Chloride on the Gel Properties and Flavor Quality of Unwashed Fish Mince Gels from Grass Carp (2022) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	On hold. The pair of 1.80% NaCl and 1.26% NaCl + 0.54% KCl (30% by weight) meets the formulation conditions. In an acceptance test with 60 students, the bitterness score in Figure 7 is on the higher side for KCl, but whether that score is intensity or acceptability cannot be confirmed, and the text describes it both as an increase and as a reduction. Electronic tongue results are kept apart
Increasing Oil Concentration Affects Consumer Perception and Physical Properties of Mayonnaise-type Spreads Containing KCl (2017) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	On hold (abstract only). With 306 consumers, the abstract says spreads with KCl generally had higher bitterness than those with NaCl, but the design also varies oil concentration, and a pair with the same oil concentration and formulation cannot be identified from the abstract. The penalty for being too bitter is a liking analysis, separate from bitterness intensity values
Sodium Replacement with KCl and MSG: Attitudes, Perception and Acceptance in Reduced Salt Soups (2023) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	Soup excluded, solutions on hold. In canned soup (101 consumers) KCl and MSG change together. The solutions (8 trained panellists, 100-point line scale) include 0.15 M NaCl without MSG and 0.1125 M NaCl + 0.02, 0.04 or 0.08 M KCl, which are candidates, but the substitution is not equimolar, and the bitterness values are in a supplementary figure, which was not obtained, so values are unconfirmed
The Effect of Salt Reduction and Partial Substitution of NaCl by KCl on Physicochemical, Microbiological, and Sensorial Characteristics and Consumers' Acceptability of Semi-Hard and Hard Lactose-Free Cow's Milk Cheeses (2022) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	On hold. Lactose-free cheese, with an NaCl-only sample and a KCl-substituted sample without yeast extract, bitterness rated by 10 experienced panellists as a difference from the control (−3 to +3); Figure 2 is a candidate. The figure was not obtained, so values are unconfirmed
Microbial Safety and Sensory Analyses of Cold-Smoked Salmon Produced with Sodium-Reduced Mineral Salts and Organic Acid Salts (2022) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	On hold. There is a pair without preservatives of 4.13% NaCl and 2.89% NaCl + 1.24% KCl, rated descriptively by 8 panellists, but the attribute definitions and results are in supplementary tables and the bitterness values could not be checked from the saved material
Gradual Reduction in Sodium Content in Cooked Ham, with Corresponding Change in Sensorial Properties Measured by Sensory Evaluation and a Multimodal Machine Vision System (2015) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	On hold. In cooked ham, 9 trained panellists rated 21 attributes including bitterness on 1–9. The results and discussion say bitterness did not differ significantly between samples with K replacement, but the bitterness means are not in the table. The Na:K = 3:1 is a molar ratio that includes what comes from the raw meat, so it cannot be treated as a simple proportion of salt replaced, and whether other ingredients were the same was not checked
Sodium, but not potassium, blocks bitterness in simple model chicken broths (2019) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	On hold (abstract only). It may compare NaCl and KCl conditions in the same broth at the same L-tryptophan concentration, but the abstract mainly describes suppression of bitterness relative to no added salt and gives no direct values, test or salt concentrations for NaCl against KCl. The conditions and results of a direct comparison are unconfirmed
Impact of Salts Mixtures on the Physicochemical and Sensory Characteristics of Spanish-Style Manzanilla Green Table Olives during Packaging (2023) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	A mixture design that varies KCl, CaCl2 and MgCl2 together (100 consumers, 10 cm line scale). The authors write that bitterness fell as KCl rose, but with the total salt fixed, more KCl means less CaCl2 and MgCl2, so the effect of KCl alone cannot be separated; no run has 0 KCl. An existing ledger source
Quality Evaluation of Packaged Pimento-Paste Stuffed Green Manzanilla Olives in KCl, CaCl2, and MgCl2 Brines (2025) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	A mixture design adding KCl, CaCl2 and MgCl2 while every brine keeps 2.5% NaCl (100 consumers); not a design that replaces NaCl with KCl
Data on green Spanish-style Manzanilla table olives fermented in salt mixtures (2016) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	A data paper on a mixed-salt design for olives; cannot be read as bitterness of a pair changing only NaCl and KCl
Mineral and sensory profile of seasoned cracked olives packed in diverse salt mixtures (2013) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	Abstract only. A mixed-salt design; the abstract says potassium in the flesh was not related to the sensory descriptors. Not a bitterness pair of NaCl and KCl
Taste properties of potassium chloride alone and in mixtures with sodium chloride using a check-all-that-apply method (2012) doi	Read as context (not in the table)	Abstract only. It says mixing NaCl into KCl reduced how often bitterness and other terms were selected; selection frequency, not intensity, and a design that adds NaCl to KCl
Saltiness and Bitterness Perception of KCl-Based Mixed Salts (KCl/NaCl/L-Arginine) Evaluated by the R-Index and Partial Projective Mapping Methods (2026) doi	Excluded	Only the 4 KCl-based mixed salts contain 10% L-arginine and the NaCl-only solution does not, so no pair has the other ingredients at the same amounts in both conditions (R-Index by 20 untrained people and projective mapping by a separate 30 untrained people). An existing ledger source
Sodium chloride replacement by potassium chloride in bread: Determination of sensorial potassium threshold and effect on dough properties and breadmaking quality (2022) doi	Excluded	A two-alternative forced-choice threshold test choosing the sample that was more bitter or more metallic (90 people); not a comparison of bitterness intensity alone
Utilization of Yeast Extract as a Flavor Enhancer and Masking Agent in Sodium-Reduced Marinated Shrimp (2023) doi	Excluded	The control also contains KCl, so there is no NaCl-only condition
Applying the Triangle Taste Test to Assess Differences between Low Sodium Salts and Common Salt: Evidence from Peru (2015) doi	Excluded	A triangle discrimination test (156 people), not a pair of bitterness intensities
A study on sensory properties of sodium reduction and replacement in Asian food using difference‐from – control test (2016) doi	Excluded	A comparison of reducing NaCl and adding MSG and similar seasonings, with no substitution by KCl. An existing ledger source
Combination of Freezing, Low Sodium Brine, and Cold Smoking on the Quality and Shelf-Life of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) Fillets as a Strategy to Innovate the Market of Aquaculture Products (2021) doi	Excluded	There is KCl substitution, but what was measured is an overall taste score, without bitterness separated. An existing ledger source
Sodium Chloride Suppresses Vegetable Bitterness Only When Plain Vegetables Are Perceived as Highly Bitter (2014) doi	Excluded	A study of bitterness of vegetables with added NaCl, with no KCl (according to the existing ledger entry; the original and abstract are not in the material saved for this question, and it was not checked against the original)
Effects of Partial Replacement of NaCl with KCl on Protein Properties and Quality Attributes of Lightly Salted Tilapias Fillets (2023) doi	Excluded	Bitterness is mentioned, but no human rating of bitterness intensity against an NaCl-only condition can be read (background text, liking or overall taste scores, or comparisons not against NaCl only); the text around the word bitter was read
Effects of sodium chloride substitutes on physicochemical properties of salted beef (2023) doi	Excluded	Bitterness is mentioned, but no human rating of bitterness intensity against an NaCl-only condition can be read (background text, liking or overall taste scores, or comparisons not against NaCl only); the text around the word bitter was read
Partial Replacement of NaCl by KCl, MgCl2 and CaCl2 Chloride Salts in the Production of Sucuk: Effects on Volatile Compounds, Lipid Oxidation, Microbiological and Sensory Properties (2023) doi	Excluded	Bitterness is mentioned, but no human rating of bitterness intensity against an NaCl-only condition can be read (background text, liking or overall taste scores, or comparisons not against NaCl only); the text around the word bitter was read
Effect of NaCl Partial Replacement by Chloride Salts on Physicochemical Characteristics, Volatile Compounds and Sensorial Properties of Dry-Cured Deer Cecina (2021) doi	Excluded	Bitterness is mentioned, but no human rating of bitterness intensity against an NaCl-only condition can be read (background text, liking or overall taste scores, or comparisons not against NaCl only); the text around the word bitter was read
Influence of limited replacement of NaCl with KCl and yeast extract on microbiological, chemical, sensory, and textural properties of emulsion‐type chicken sausages (2021) doi	Excluded	Bitterness is mentioned, but no human rating of bitterness intensity against an NaCl-only condition can be read (background text, liking or overall taste scores, or comparisons not against NaCl only); the text around the word bitter was read
Substituting Fat with Olive Oil, Mash Potato, or a Gelatin Matrix in Low-Salt-Content Dry-Fermented Sausages (2022) doi	Excluded	Bitterness is mentioned, but no human rating of bitterness intensity against an NaCl-only condition can be read (background text, liking or overall taste scores, or comparisons not against NaCl only); the text around the word bitter was read
Utilisation of Potassium Chloride in the Production of White Brined Cheese: Artificial Neural Network Modeling and Kinetic Models for Predicting Brine and Cheese Properties during Storage (2024) doi	Excluded	Bitterness is mentioned, but no human rating of bitterness intensity against an NaCl-only condition can be read (background text, liking or overall taste scores, or comparisons not against NaCl only); the text around the word bitter was read
The effect of partial substitution of NaCl with KCl on the physicochemical, microbiological and sensory properties of Akkawi cheese (2015) doi	Excluded	Abstract only. It says only that salt treatment affected bitterness significantly, with no direction
Sodium reduction and flavor enhancer addition in probiotic prato cheese: Contributions of quantitative descriptive analysis and temporal dominance of sensations for sensory profiling (2018) doi	Excluded	Abstract only. No bitterness pair of NaCl only and KCl substitution in the abstract
Reduced-sodium roasted chicken: Physical/technological characteristics, optimized KCl-seasoning mixture, consumer perception, liking, emotions, and purchase intent (2023) doi	Excluded	Abstract only. It says sensory attributes did not differ significantly with KCl substitution, without naming bitterness
Taste perception and purchase intent of oil‐in‐water spreads: effects of oil types and salt (NaCl or KCl) concentrations (2017) doi	Excluded	Abstract only. Differences in bitterness are described for oil types, with no comparison of bitterness between NaCl and KCl
Oil and tastant concentrations affect saltiness and bitterness perception of oil‐in‐water emulsions (2015) doi	Excluded	Abstract only. A study of saltiness and bitterness by oil concentration, not bitterness of a pair replacing NaCl with KCl
Psychophysical Effects of Increasing Oil Concentrations on Saltiness and Bitterness Perception of Oil-in-Water Emulsions (2015) doi	Excluded	Abstract only. A study of saltiness and bitterness by oil concentration, not bitterness of a pair replacing NaCl with KCl

Source ledger

The source for each study in the table can be followed from its section. All of the lab's sources are listed in the source ledger (in Japanese).

How to cite this page

Aoki, M. (NIGAMI LAB) (2026). Does swapping salt for potassium chloride add bitterness?. https://nigamilab.com/en/topics/salt-kcl-substitution-bitterness/

Each claim card has a stable anchor (#clm-…). The dataset is CC BY 4.0; see the data page. Dataset DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.22739101